Armed forces Essay Example for Free

Armed forces EssayThis section provides information on the soldiers, sailors and bill who gained, maintained and therefore lost an empire. It mustiness be remembered that the vast majority of the empires military man tycoon was recruited from step upside the m new(prenominal) country. It is interesting to note that some of the fiercest resistors to the British went on to beseem the staunchest every(prenominal)ies and def destinationers of her empire Highlanders, Sikhs and Gurkhas are perhaps the best examples of this phenomena.The military history of the empire is rich in colour and variety precisely is also inevitably linked to the darker and more sinister side of the empire through conquest, pacification and destruction. The tentacles of the military spread throughout the empire and beyond, the armed forces were not altogether the conquerors and defenders of the empire notwithstanding also provided the garrisons that policed the vast expanses of territory and enabled communication oer the vast distances mingled. The military was very oft the close Copernican trigger of the empire.Land forces InfantryThe old age around 1783 were tumultuous ones for the army and things were about to suffer even more difficult in the near future. The Army was coming to the end of its actions in the 13 colonies. Political and military defeat hung heavily all over Britain at the magazine. The army had borne the brunt of the unsuccessful campaign and so were associated with the failure.Life was to become even more chanceful and precarious for the British army as it become embroiled in the gameyly difficult task of containing the expansion of basal and then Napoleonic France. The army would thitherfore be forced to expand to an unusually large size and would be strained to its limits. The prominent role con fly the coop by the British army in ultimately defeating Napoleon would restore its pride and prestige both at home and overseas.In the power point succeeding(a) victory in 1815, the British army was regarded as the fire brigade of the Empire being sent to wherever there were disturbances or problems. It would become involved in countless small struggles in far flung corners of the globe, most of which would be successful endeavours. However, the army would be sorely tested by the events of the Crimean war and the Indian mutiny. The problems encountered in these actions provided the rationale for the Card sound army reforms which were implemented progressively from the late 1860s to the early 1880s.The numbering system usaged by the British army in purchase order to determine precedence was commencement exercise used in 1751. The year 1782 is interesting because it is the first time that some(prenominal) of these regiments were associated with a specific local area. Theoretically, this was to be where their shop was to be based and their recruiting to take place. However, constant strategicalal and manpower needs meant that these regiments could be posted anywhere and were keen to take recruits from wherever they could find them. In this period of history, the numbers were the more important of the desig kingdoms and would be used on a day to day basis. However, the territorial titles would later form the basis of the bordering major overhaul of the regimental system almost exactly 100 old age later the Cardwell Army reforms.Foot guardsNumberTitle1stThe head set off Regiment of Foot Guards2ndThe Second (Cold stream) Regiment of Foot Guards3rdHis Majesties Third Regiment of Foot GuardsCavalry first off troop of disembodied spirit guards tagNick fleshsThe BangersLumpersThe CheesemongersThe Fly-slicersThe Piccadilly ButchersThe Roast and BoiledThe Ticky TinsThe Tin BelliesThe Patent SafetiesMottoHoni soit qui mal y penseEvil be to him who evil thinksregimental MarchesMillanollo (Quick)Val HammThe Life Guards Slow March (Slow)Regimental AnniversaryWaterloo Day 18th JuneColonels1660 1788Soldiers 1660 1788Successor Units1st Life Guards(1660 1788)The Life Guards(1922 )Suggested ReadingHistory of the Household Cavalryby Sir George Arthur(Constable 1909, 1926 3 vols)The Story of the First Life Guards(Harrap 1922)Historical Record of the Life Guards(capital of the United Kingdom Clowes 1836)Regimental MuseumHousehold Cavalry MuseumCombermere BarracksWindsorMore go tohttp//www.btinternet.com/britishempire/empire/forces/armyunits/britishcavalry/1sttroopofhorseguards.htmlArtilleryHorse artilleryBattery Sergeant-MajorThe other picture of the Battery Sergeant-major is a coloured engraving from a photo. He has gold braiding. The back end of a 12-pounder is accurately sh make.Officer 1890The Officer is in full dress on his charger.Sergeants with 12 PounderThe Sergeants are in various forms of dress. The one in the forground is in full dress or a just dress, the others are in different combinations of working dress.Mounted SergeantThe gold cord braiding on his jacket indicates that he is a Sergeant.F Battery in Second Afghan WarScience and technologyTransportRail focussingsThe nineteenth hundred saw many proficient changes, but none of them were to have as wide repurcussions as the invention of the train. The power of steam had been known for some time but applying this power to moving heavy goods and people over desire distances was one application that would have profound consequences and serve the British and their Empire for well over a hundred years.It was George Stephenson who realised the full power and emf of the steam engine when he designed a machine that could take advantage of narrow copper tubes which could be heated to create the all important steam power. The Rocket was the first such steam engine to take advantage of this new technology as it operated betwixt Liverpool and Manchester from 1830. However, technical change was to become rapid and the train was to change its appearance and technical specifications again and again.Inevitably, i t was the mother country that first saw her landscape transformed by this new invention. Navvies from Ireland, Scotland and the conjugation of England scarred the landscape with viaducts, bridges and tunnels in the pursuit of the smooth gradients that trains required to travel at their most efficient level. They were paid a pittance for excruciating and dangerous work. In many ways, these navvies represented one of the largest migrations of Imperial settlers as they moved over from Ireland or as they followed the train tracks around the country and ended up settling in the last place they found work.In 1847 there were a quarter of a million navvies digging and blasting their way over the British landscape, their travels are one of the lesser documented migrations of history. However, the job they did is still plain to see in the British landscape some 150 years later and will be for many more years to come. The amount of track laid in Britain increased from only 500 miles in 1838 t o over 8,000 by 1855. This expansion of track also brought down the cost of travel so that all but the poorest could afford to travel by train. In the phase days, a ticket from London to Manchester and back would have cost 3 10s but by 1851 the train fare for this same journey was only 5s (a one-seventh of the stagecoach fare) for a far quicker and more comfortable journey.Of course, the expansion of the lines didnt just rest on the invention of the steam train. Iron was needed for the raceway and its mass production helped to reduce the costs to the railway industry. In addition, iron girders and glass were used to construct magnificent looking railway stations. Even fourth-year industries, like stonemasonry were given a new lease of life as vast quantities of stone and rock were needed for sleepers, bridges and stations. The railway age was an frightful boost to the economy of Britain, and would provide the country with one of the most efficient infrastructures for the remain der of the century.It wouldnt take colonial administrators long to see the benefits that such an infrastructure could fuck off to the colonies they were in charge of. Particularly, as some of these colonies could be immense in size and with little existing infrastructure. Horses and ships had provided the most efficient manner of transport to date, but ships obviously couldnt reach the interior and horses could not match the speed and power of this latest invention. The old established colonies like India, leapt at the railway opportunities and built a railway structure that would even rival the mother countrys in scope and scale. They were oftentimes financed by British industrialists keen to move the primary and secondary products of India to the ports determine to be exported to Britain and her factories. Cotton, spices and teas would all provide the economic model for railway grammatical construction that would later be copied in other colonies by other crops and industries rubber in Malaysia, coffee in South America, grains in Canada and livestock in Australia and New Zealand.In some colonies, railways were used more as the initial spur to move on colonisation of an area. In Africa, railways were built to provide an infrastructure that would lure white colonists into an area in order to farm the area and turn it into a advantageous colony. South Africa, Rhodesia and Kenya all wanted to increase their white population and increase the economic activity of their lands and all spent copious amounts of money and effort into building railways in what were very often inhospitable areas to European settlers. They all had varying degrees of success, but were built nonetheless. Indeed, one of the keen issues of late nineteenth century was Cecil Rhodes burning ambition to build a Cape to Cairo railway line that passed through British territory all the way. And this dream, although not realised by a train ne 2rk, certainly influenced a great deal of Central African colonisation during the period.Another spur to the railway building in the nineteenth century was the British army. They too, quickly identified the advantages in being able to move troops and supplies around in a quick and efficient manner. The army would often try to influence local colonial administrators and get them to build railway lines to places which had little business or economic rationale. Alternatively, the army would build its own railway lines in areas they felt were necessary. In the case of Kitcheners Sudan campaign in the late 1890s, the army travelled down the Nile slowly but surely, not just out of tactical considerations, but because they were building a railway line as they travelled. In fact, this railway line is still in use as Sudans major railway line over a hundred years after it was built by the British army. Likewise in the Boer war, the British army came to expect on the strategic advantages of the railway network, but would also be exposed to the vulnerability of this network as the Boers transformed themselves into a guerilla army and washed-up bridges and lines at will. Despite this costly lesson, the British army maintained its respect and use of trains for many more years to come.Railways transformed the Empire in many ways, it increased business activity and allowed businesses to flourish in areas that previously would have been unaccepted to make a living in. It allowed officials to move rapidly over the areas that they governed. It allowed troops to be dispatched over great distances in short periods of time, indeed this speed of response removed much of the burden of having to station so many troops in a colony in the first place. Populations could benefit from access to cheaper goods as the factories of Europe could unleash their products to the far flung corners of the empire tinned goods, newspapers, the boot polish and toys could all be moved at a fraction of the cost from previous days.The people themselv es could move around the empire whether for business or for pleasure families could be reunited more regularly, farmers could travel longer distances to get their products to market, businessmen could entertain clients from further afield. Even deep down relatively short distances and in displace areas people wanted to enjoy the benefits of the train system. Therefore, in London, one of the more interesting railway innovations was devised in the 1860s the underground system, or the tube. Using Victorian inventiveness and technical engineering expertise an elaborate underground system of trains was built that would be envied and copied by Metropolises the knowledge domain over. And again, it reinvigorated the economic life of the City of London and allowed for yet other relocation of businesses and housing for the masses of that city.The advantages of the railways were apparent to well-nigh everyone. These were the days when progress was seen as a universal good and the railway s were a indigenous example of this beneficent progress.ShipsEngland was a small island nation off the coast of the very omnipotent and dynamic continent of Europe proper. There were three options exculpated to the slope ruling classes. First of all, she could immerse herself into European politics and economics. However, the competition on this front was particularly fierce cut, Italians, Austrians and a myriad of other powerful nations would ensure that England would only be one player in a field of many. Besides, wars and religion made dabbling in this arena a very costly one. Second, she could turn in on herself and try to stay aloof from the goings on of the serviceman. This strategy suited the Japanese in their dealings with their continental rivals. However the position were already keen bargainrs and had acquired tastes and business practices that made this option an unpalatble one. Her third choice was to turn to the opportunities offered by the rest of the world. And it is because she chose this path that first England, and then Britain, turned herself into the superior maritime nation of Europe and indeed the world.Englands rise as a maritime nation started with the reign of King Henry VIII. His ambitions were guided more to Europe, but he did manage to lay down financial and military foundations that would be taken advantage of by his successors. The Mary Rose is testimony to the size and power that the King sought to develop. He wanted a navy to project his power and influence onto the European political scene. Unfortunately, his plans and schemes were not fully realized during his reign. However, his treasury was full, the ports were protected by new castles and coastal defences and he had started a maritime tradition that would bequeath valuable skills and experience to later generations of sea goers.By the time Queen Elizabeth came to the throne, the most powerful maritime nations were Spain and Portugal. These nations had encourage d explorers to find new, exciting and highly profitable trade routes. However, there were deep religious and philosophical divisions between these Catholic nations and the Protestant English. Queen Elizabeth had no love for these religious and economic rivals and basically sanctioned piracy on the high seas as a means of prosecuting war against the Catholic monarchies. Chief amongst her officially sanctioned privateers were Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins. These, and other sailors, wreaked havoc with Spanish and Portugese trade routes to the East Indies and particularly to the New being. The Caribbean became particularly ill-famed for rampant piracy.This rivalry turned into something of a naval arms race as the Spanish and English tried to outdo each other in terms of offensive power or in terms of speed to escape potentiality privateers.Military and commercial ships of both nations would benefit from new technologies, techniques and skills. The naval rivalry between these two nations would reach a head in 1588 with the Spanish Armada. This Spanish attempt to stamp out her English rivals was a guess that did not pay off. Bad weather and English seamanship saw that the Armada failed in its bid to land an army on English soil. More importantly, the destruction of much of the Armada left the English mariners in a very powerful position and particularly in the Caribbean and in the New World. In the East Indies with its spice trade, the English still had to deal with the Portugese and the Dutch as just competitors. But with the removal of the Spanish, the English were free to develop an singularly successful economic venture.There were two main commercial activities that allowed the English to maximise there maritime advantage Sugar and Slavery. In fact, these were two complemantary activities that would work very closely together. Slaves were needed to tend and harvest the sugar crops of the New World. The same ships that transported these slaves coul d then be loaded up with sugar and brought back to Europe. With the advent of industrialisation in Britain, the third degree of this trip could also be made profitable. Cheap manufactured goods were taken from Liverpool and Bristol to West Africa and exchanged their for slaves, the slaves were exchanged for sugar in the Caribbean, and the sugar would finally be sold in Europe at a huge profit. The profits involved meant that few people overly concerned by any humanist or ethical issues. Indeed, the economic success of this trade would mean that even more time, money and skills were ploughed into the British commercial and Royal Navies. The more and emend the British ships became the more she took the worlds trade and the faster she developed into the worlds preeminent naval power.By the mid to end of the eighteenth century, the British could claim to have the largest and most successful naval forces in the world Both militarily and commercially. By this time, naval traditions, ex perience and expertise had been fully augmented by advances in acquirement and the latest industrial products and techniques. British ships were familiar sites to ports and coastal regions the world over. However, two events would test this faith and confidence in the maritime forces of the nation.Soon, the British would realise that although they were a match for any nation on even terms, a combination of forces efficacy lead to her undoing. The first test of this theory was the American War of Independence. French and Spanish involvement in supplying and maintaining the insurrection. intermix this with Royal Naval ships and sailors fighting on the side of the colonists and the British could see that they were not as invincible as they would have liked to have believed. However, the real test of the strength and importance of the Naval forces of Britain was to come with the rise of Napoleon on the European continent.A brilliant tactician and strategist, Napoleon swept most of E urope before him. As he took effective control over these powers he also took control of their navies. The British tried their best to thwart these plans with some success in Holland and especially Denmark. However, the Spanish and French fleets combined again to form a most impressive force. Unlike the days of the American War of Independence, it was clear that the only way the British could dispense with the curse of Napoleon was to confront and defeat this Navy in an open battle. The stakes for the island nation had not been higher since the days of Drake and the Spanish Armada. Fortunately for the British, a new hero rose to the hour. Admiral Nelson successfully frustrated the combined fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar. He paid for this victory with his life, but he laid down a sense of security for the island nation that would remain intact for another century. Although disappointments and setbacks did occur, most notably in the War of 1812-14, essentially the Royal Navy retu rned to being the preeminent maritime nation.Indeed, the only dear threat to the Royal and Merchant Navies were the sailors, captains and admirals themselves. Complacency and a lack of serious rivals meant that the British maritime forces lay essentially unchanged for most of the nineteenth century. half a century after the death of Nelson and the Royal Navy had barely changed at all even the ships were the same. The only serious innovation that made serious inroads into these traditions was the advent of steam.Even then, the Admiralty were reluctant converts to this latest technology and pined for the days of sail. It would be left to commercial forces and entrepreneurs to explore and develop this means of power. The most important name associated with these developments is that of Isambard Kingdom Brunel. This man built the first steamship to cross the Atlantic the Great Western. The first ocean screw steamer the Great Britain. And what for 40 years would be the largest ship eve r built the Great Eastern. And although these ships were not the greatest of commercial triumphs the combination of ingenuity, expertise and industrial technology would mean that Britain would remain at the forefront of maritime power for some time to come.Steam power would open up other avenues for exploration that had previously been difficult if not impossible for mariners to pursue. The ability to power a vessel upstream would mean that many of the worlds rivers could be opened up to European explorers and traders. This would allow for new parts of the world to be explored and new commerical and political relationships to be established. Africa would see this technology employed along its many rivers. Indeed, steamships would even be taken overland to operate on the great lakes of the African interior.One side effect of the introduction of steampower was that coaling stations would become a strategic necessity to the Royal and Merchant Navies. All of a sudden, the Royal Navy bec ame concerned at the placement of Naval bases particularly with regards to how far a ship could steam before it needed refuelling. This new strategic thinking would be augmented and amended by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. The world was becoming a smaller place at a rapid rate and maritime necessities would be prime in consideration for much of the Imperial expansion of the day.Cash crops would be the new cash overawe that provided the financial impetus for maritime ventures at the Imperial level. Tea, cotton, rubber, even opium would all take their turn in providing the imperatives and returns in investing in Britains maritime fleets. Combine these financial considerations with regular British trade patterns with Europe, Latin America and the United states and the fact that populations were willing and able to move about the planet in unprecedented numbers and the importance of ships and maritime policy to the British Empire is easy to comprehend.The next challenge to Bri tish supremacy of the waves was to be by the Germans. By the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries European and imperial rivalries combined to form ominous and powerful blocks of nations. On one side lay the French and Russians, on the other the Germans, Italians and Austrians. Britain tried to remain aloof for as long as possible, but when the Germans declared that they wanted a Navy that was the equal of the Royal Navy, the gauntlet had been laid and the British joined with the French and Russians. A naval arms race between the British and Germans was proving costly to both countries, it didnt help matters when one of Britains own innovations nearly bankrupted the nation. The development of the Battleship Dreadnought in 1906 unploughed the British at the front of Naval technology but at the cost of do their entire existing fleet obsolescent. The Germans would easily be able to catch up to the British with this new technology and, if it hadnt been fo r competing claims on the German military budget, might have succeeded in doing so.As it was, during The Great War, the British were just able to keep ahead of the Germans and successfully bottled them up in their Baltic ports for most of the war. However, another military development would provide fresh worries and portents enough for the British. The submarine did not effect the war as much as their German commanders had hoped, but their potential for disrupting existing Naval balances of power were clear to all. These concerns would be played out at a much more lethal level during the next war.Meanwhile, the interwar period saw cutbacks to both the Royal and Merchant Navies. With little appetite left for armed forces, British politicians cut back defence expenditure on all of the services. The Royal Navy was no exception. These cutbacks came just as new maritime rivals could be seen on the horizon. During The Great War, the Americans had turned their massive industrial might to fit her armed forces in a very short period of time. At the same time, the Japanese had been left unchallenged to develop in the Pacific Ocean.When the war ended they quickly sought to establish some kind of parity with the Royal Navy the result was the Washington conference. This conference established the so called 553 ratios for capital ships. America and Britain were to be equal in size and number of ships whilst the Japan maintained 60% of these numbers. The effect of the conference was that Britain, for the first time since Drake, admitted that she would only be the equal of another power. No longer would she aim to be the preeminent naval power. In reality, she had also given the Japanese a local superiority in the Pacific region. A superiority the Japanese would use to dismember much of the British Asian Empire.The Second World War was to put Britain in as much, if not more, peril than in the first. Her naval commanders rightly identified submarine warfare as being the bigge st threat the island nation. The Royal and Merchant Navies took horrendous losses as these commanders developed ways of dealing with this silent menace. Convoys and ASDIC did most to redress this balance. But it was a long, unexpressed fight and one that left Britain militarily and economically exhausted by the end of the war.Britain would never reclaim its former maritime glory. The United States and Soviet Navies would occult the Royal Navy in size, technology and power. Aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines and the rise of Air Power in general would mean that the strategic balance had been tipped forever. secession from Empire speeded up this process even more, bases in the Far East, South East Asia, the Middle East and even the Mediterranean seemed like expensive anachronisms that no longer served any purpose. At a commercial level, the rise of air transport killed off much of the passenger business of the shipping lines. Also, new trade patterns were established as Imperial trade was replaced by much shorter European destinations.The fall from grace of the British naval heritage is only so come when you realise how long and how deep that tradition has been the lifeblood of the nation. Generations of citizens grew up with the unquestioning belief that Britannia Ruled the Waves. Now that she is a middle ranking European nation, it is not firm to see why so many people lament the passing of an era and why it inspires so many more to be fascinated and arouse in this area of British history.CommunicationsThe wire system was one of the technological wonders of the nineteenth century. It transformed communication theory in a profound way and helped to give the British Army a technological superiority over most of her competitors. Its invention was a product of the enthusiasm and skill of industrial revolutionary Britain. William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone, a scientist and an entrepreneur, teamed up to forge a devastatingly effective allianc e that combined the savvy of both individuals to produce the needle telegraph. Wheatstone came up with the technological aspect whilst the Cooke had the hypermetropy to approach the railway companies in order to run their lines along side the railway tracks. On 25 July 1837 the first experimental line with the new telegraph was started.The Great Western Railway Company connected the stations Euston Square and Camden Town over a distance of 2.4 kilometres. It was an outstanding success that not only amazed Victorians but displayed obvious applications for its use. When it was used to broadcast such news as the birth of Queen Victorias second son, or to catch a receiver who had attempted an escape by train, its acceptance and usefulness was plain for all to see. In fact, the only problem with this initial invention was that it the code to transmit messages was sooner cumbersome and in fact only twenty letters were used of the alphabet. Credit for the simplification of the both the h ardware and code was to cross the Atlantic to a certain Samuel Morse.Samuel Morse had a mission in life. A devout Christian, his world had turned upside down when he missed the funeral of his wife collect to a message being delivered late. He never wanted anyone to go through the pain that he had endured and so set about perfecting an easy to use message system. His revolution centred around the idea of sending pulses of electricity of two fixed lengths dots and dashes. The subsequent morse code was so much easier to for all to master. He too saw the logic in following the railroad lines and telegraph poles continued their close relationships to the railway lines that were gradually spreading out over the continents of the world. Of course, there were larger scale boundaries that also needed crossing.Crossing the Atlantic Ocean with a submarine telegraph line was one of the holy grails of Victorian technological advances. So much so that Sirus Field, a very rich American businessm an, personally financed the hiring of two warships, one American and one British (USS Buchanan and HMS Victoria), to simply start in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and pull the wire to the opposing sides of the Atlantic. After a couple of attempts, they did indeed manage to succeed in their endeavour.The chairwoman of the United States and Queen Victoria managed to exchange pleasantries across all those thousands of miles. Unfortunately, the line only worked for just over two weeks. The Victorian scientists had not anticipated the high voltages that were required to send messages across those thousands of miles. The line of descent simply burnt out. It would be seven years before the line was reconnected. The problem being that the new, low voltage, well insulated wires were just too thick for any ship to be able to carry. Until, that was, the SS Great Eastern was launched. This was a behemoth of a ship that dwarfed all other ships by its size and speed. In 1866 she easily connec ted the two continents together.Submarine telegraph lines were now spreading across the world as the British presidency realised the full potential for governing and communicating with its far flung empire. By 1890, of the inhabited British territories, only Fiji, British Honduras, Tobago, the Falkland Islands, Turks Islands and New Guinea had no rail line at all. The importance that Britain personally invested in this world wide infrastructure is borne out by the statistic that by 1914, 75% of all the worlds submarine lines were held by the British. Indeed, within hours of the outbreak of the First World War, the first action taken by any of the British and Imperial Forces around the world was actually taken in Melbourne in Australia. A German merchant ship was fired on by coastal batteries as she attempted to leave port. The fact that this took place on the exact opposite side of the world illustrates how much smaller the empire had become with the advent of telegraphy.Before th e advent of this technology, the British government had had to entrust a great deal of local powers to its representatives across the world. When it took three months for a message to travel from a colony back to the capital, waiting for a reply was a luxury that frequently could not be tolerated. The man on the spot was a very powerful figure indeed. With the advent of the telegraph, London could have virtually instantaneous contact with the capitals of her colonies and dominions and conduct business from afar.Cables Being Laid in CanadaThe value of Britains world wide telegraphic system actually contributed to Britains strategic worries. The cables were kept in British colonies or under British controlled seas as much as possible, but this was not always avoidable. Whenever this occurred the British worried about interceptions of messages or of cutting the link altogether. For example, the link to Australia passed over Dutch Java, the South American cable ran through Portugese Mad eira, but probably the biggest headache of all to Britains strategic thinkers was the cable that ran from London to Calcutta. In fact, there were three such cables.One ran from Lowestoft to Germany, through Russia, Persia and in to India. Apart from the strategic nightmares of this essential line of communication was the fact that the Germans and Russians were in a position to keep the costs of using this cable artificially high. The second cable was not much better. It ran across Europe to Constantinople, across jokester to the Persian Gulf and then by cable to Karachi. Little reliance could be placed on the Ottoman empire. The third cable ran from London to Gibraltar to Malta, Egypt to Aden and then on to Bombay. This looked secure enough, but still relied on using Spanish relay stations to boost the signals. Besides, it was generally more economic to send the messages up over France from Malta.To add to the strategic difficulties the vagaries of the currents and weather caused y et further headaches. Storms, winds, silt, even fishermen could all accidentally disrupt the sending of messages. Combined with the distances involved, it is little wonder the tariffs could be so high. 4 shillings per word to India, and 6s. 9d. to Australia. And yet, the British were convinced that the value of the system was worth the price. All over the world, Englishmen were employed laying or maintaining cables or operational booster stations along the line. The cable manager often became a key member of society for the further flung outposts of imperial society. In Australia, Alice Springs actually came to life as the central station for the overland 2000 mile Telegraph line stretching from Adelaide to the North. These 36,000 telegraph poles were built years before any road or railway line crossed the continent. And it could be dangerous too. In 1874, two cable men were speared to death by Aborigines.The laying and maintaining of this enormous network must rank as one of the m ost important achievements of the British Empire. Its scope and utility is hard to imagine in a world where instantaneous communications are taken for granted. Before the invention of the Telegraph the speed of communication had changed little since the time of the Romans. Within thirty years of the first twitchings of Cooks and Wheatstones needle telegraph, the world had been made substantially smaller.

Good Managers Are Born Not Made Management Essay

groovy Managers Are Born Not Made Management EssayThe key to a boffo disposal is said to lie within a good music director. It is in fact the effectiveness of this motorbus and the qualities that they possess that are vital to the instruction and saving of an efficient anxiety system within a corporation. The question remains however, as to whether or not these good carriages are born, if they possess qualities that will impression them into fantastic leaders of the future. Or are they do? Is it possible to develop and acquire the necessary skills to become the good manager a successful fundamental law needs?It should first be acknowledged that leaders and managers are often referred to assuming they are the exact same thing however, there are round differences that need to be clarified. There is often some confusion due to the fact that it is particularly difficult to define a manager because a universally accepted definition does not exist. According to Tripathi, (2008, p.2) a manager is unmatched who contributes to the organisations goals indirectly by directing the efforts of others-not by performing the task himself.Leadership and management are closely interrelated because if you are a manager of an organization, you are in essence the most important leader (Kouzes Posner 2010, p.338). The most obvious note between a leader and a manager lies within what leadership refers to. Leadership does not refer to a position at the top of an organization and just because a manager holds that specific position, it does not mean they are leading. Leaders have willing pursuit where their right to lead is earned from those followers through their influence. They intend to make change using their personal power and cannot use coercion but instead inspire with their vision (Huth 2001). A manager on the other hand, must hold the authority to achieve results through other people whereby their right to manage is granted by ownership. Managers must be in a po sition of power where they can use coercion and coordinate activities (Huth 2001). However, nobody can deny that one compliments the other. It could appear that base on the above one could quite possible be born a leader but not a manager, although this can also be disputed. Kouzes and Posner (2010, p.339) consider it a myth that the notion of leadership is reserved for those lucky enough to be born with it. Leadership is, an observable set of skills and abilities (Kouzes Posner 2010, p.338).Therefore the interrogation still remains as to whether a good manager can be made it may just be that a good manager must also be required to possess good leadership skills.There are surely many corporations that still value the theory that Good managers are born not made, however the common organizational failures that can be detected within many individual companies suggest that this theory is in fact flawed. Werner and DeSimone (2006, p.441) suggest that management development is a huge w ay to increase the effectiveness of managers within an organization. Werner and DeSimone (2006, p.441) make a strong point accentuation that even though according to popular belief the ability to manage is an inborn capability, there is a contemporary view that the KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics) which all lap to develop an effective manager can be learned or acquired. Nonetheless, before touching on how companies can establish a new institute understanding on developing effective management within an organization, the notion of management development must firstly be explained. Werner and DeSimone (2006, p.441) defined management development asAn organizations conscious effort to provide its managers (and potential managers) with opportunities to learn, grow, and change, in hopes of producing all over the long term a cadre of managers with the skills necessary to function effectively in that organization.The definition above supports the notion tha t management development should be seen specific to a particular organization. This is due to the fact that each organization is unique and should civilize to develop individuals into effective managers within the context of the particular organization. In addition, the entire idea behind management development is the fact that employees are granted the opportunity to learn, grow and improve. Therefore when you refer this back to the ability to further develop ones skills, according to Werner and DeSimone (2006, p.441) it assists managers in learning how to learn.The authors also indicate that management development is made up of three components (1) management education, (2) management training, and (3) on-the-job experiences (Werner DeSimone 2006, p.442). It is these very components that Werner and DeSimone believe strongly contribute to the development of an effective manager. Williamson (2006) concurs that on the job experience is one of the most significant learning curves. According to Williamson (2006) an effective manager is made up of a range of skills that go beyond the misconception that the sole role of a manager is to tell people what to do. Williamson (2006) made a list of characteristics and skills that are necessary for a manager to possess to therefore be effective. Some of these skills and characteristics take on being knowledgeable by understanding the goals and objectives of the company. Understanding the expectations you must meet along with the goals and objectives. Appreciating and understand the value of their team, being empathetic and knowing how to manage their prison term and use their time efficiently, passing those skills onto their team. All of the above are morals of skills that are gained through training and through experience, in conjunction with the components of Werner and DeSimone. A good manager is required to work hard and pour a lot of effort into his job experience to extract the necessary lessons from each exper ience, learning and growing.There is contrariety amongst management writers about the classification of managerial functions however Tripathi (2008, p.3) classifies the functions into six types Planning, Organising, Directing, Controlling, Innovation and Representation.Planning is the function that determines what should be done, preparing for the future. Organising refers to providing the business with everything useful to its functioning including, personnel, raw materials, tools, capital. moreover Tripathi (2008, p.3) includes staffing as a function within Organising whereby the manager attempts to find the right person for each job. Just by taking these two functions as an example it can be noted that life and work experience play a huge part in the development of an effective manager. One cannot be born with the knowledge to understand the needs of an organisation nor can they have the experience to judge a persons capabilities and allocate them the appropriate job. These capa bilities are acquired and developed over time.There will always be the belief that good managers are born and in fact not made, because they hold the ability to manage which is something essential and cannot be imparted by training.

The Challenges Of Academic Writing English Language Essay

The Challenges Of Academic Writing English Language EssayAcademic writing is piddlely very alpha for a student and cannot be avoided. Moreover, not only give quality academic writing help to succeed in your college life, it is essential for your c arer as well. The documentation you present to your manager or supervisor is the direct reflection of your ideas, your lastledge and, most importantly, of you on the paper. Academic writing encourages you critical thinking, brings out the creativeness and potentially facilitates intellectual growth. To me, academic writing is an art. Art that requires a lot of research in the field. After collecting all the data, the writer has to put his thoughts on the paper using good vocabulary and phrases in the best way to open up the subject. The benefits of academic writing are very obvious, so are the difficulties that come with it. Courses like English 1101 are designed to prepare students for proper academic communication, however, its hard to believe that nonpareil can learn how to write in one semester. I think my academic writing has developed tremendously, considering the fact that features like MLA and active voice dont frighten me as much however, using triad person voice is still very challenging and is something that I get out claim to keep working on.No doubt, using MLA format is probably one of the biggest challenges for students in their academic careers. Im not going to lie, when I first started the course, I had no idea what MLA was and, truthfully, I was terrified just by looking at aspects like in-text citations, paraphrasing, integrating quotations and, especially, Works Cited page of the essay. To me it was really important to realize the purpose of using MLA style in my academic writing. First of all, it is a classifi equal to(p) format that creates the proper way of written communication, secondly, it is a system of referencing the sources through the parenthetical citations and Works Cited pages which gives the writer credibility. Given these points, it didnt take me long to realize that I will probably have to use this style through out my whole academic career, and I immediately came to the conclusion that the sooner I will learn all the details of it, the better foundation I will have for the future. Looking back now, I realize that there was nothing to be scared of . Undoubtedly, it didnt come easy learning MLA was very time-consuming, required a lot of effort and practice. At the end of the day, I am feeling passably comfortable with it, and if I have questions in the future, I have the right tools to address the issue.Another aspect of academic writing is using active voice. This is something I was very familiar with from the very beginning, however, knowing it doesnt mean that you can use it. A lot of times I had to catch myself trying to make my sentences pop off very formal, which often meant putting sentences in passive voice. As a result, I would end up having long, confusing and unclear sentences, that left the commentator guessing. It was essential for me to comprehend that not only does passive voice creates an obstruction in understanding who is doing the action, but also passive voice sentences end up being wordy and distracting. On the other hand, using active voice in academic essays helps to phrase your thoughts and ideas straight to the point giving the reader a clear explanation of your point of view. For this reason, I found that using complex-compound sentences in active voice is the most powerful way of portraying your ideas, because its those elements that add horn of plenty and color to the essays. In addition,varying the rhythm by alternating short and long sentences can add playfulness and sound less monotone. Also, varying sentence openings will help to make everything cohesive and add individuality to each sentence. So, my ultimate goal is going to be balancing all of these aspects.My biggest personal challenge in th is course was writing the academic essays in third voice. Even though the whole concept of why we should write in third voice was clear to me, using it in actual essays was extremely difficult. Yes, it sounds less subjective, more credible and professional. No doubt, maintaining third voice in academical writing helps to give a skilful tone and convey the information in a clear way. However, the formality of it sometimes leaves very little for individuality and your personal style. Not being able to use I, I think or in my opinion just kind of left me disopinionated. How can you write about your experiences, attitudes and viewpoints without including yourself in them? Ultimately, in this cultivate I had to shift my thought process by not using the personal language and personal judgment phrases, I was able to express umpteen different opinions. Writing in third voice helps to stay neutral and strictly refer to the facts. Overall, I think Im on right track, although I know I still have a lot of work ahead of me.All things considered, I think my academic writing skills improved excessively, especially considering that they were non-existent before. Im jocund I took this course early on my journey because Im taking a lot with me to the future. Along the way I had a chance to to sharpen up my research making skills, exercise rational and creative thinking and learn about helpful sources like online library and online tutoring sessions. Im sure I will be able to use these skills not only in my academic life but also in my professional and personal lives in various ways. Do I consider myself a writer? Probably not. However, Im definitely more comfortable with my writing. I understand there is room for improvement, but I have all the tools to succeed.

Preventing Dengue Fever in the Mauritius

Pr scourting Dengue Fever in the MauritiusINTRODUCTIONMauritius is a sm several(prenominal)ly equatorial island regain at latitude 20 18 0 S and longitude 57 34 60 E. It has a tropical climatic condition. Mauritius has an bea of ab bulge 2,040 sq km and is located to ab come bulge 2000 kilometers from eastmost west of Africa and some 800 kilometers from Madagascar. The positioning of Mauritius makes the latter a tropical country with moderately lofty temperature with come to the fore the socio-economic class. Winter and summer atomic piece 18 the seasons that manifest onto the island.The island of Mauritius finds itself as one of the most accessible islands in the Indian Ocean. Situated amid Runion island and Rodrigues island, the island of Mauritius has gained the re dictateation, through the agate line of succession of that of the key and principal of the Indian Ocean. The Mauritian population estimates for the year 2008 was close to 1, 260, 781 with an annual growth rate of 0.7 %.Since the country is undergoing major developmental changes many a(prenominal) industries encounter implanted present and thus the arrive of expatriates in the country is on the rise. These plurality may be a carrier of the disease and of course those Mauritians visiting the breakbone febrility febricity febrility enzootic sectors cornerstone excessively pay off give and bring the disease in the country.It is an indisput suitable feature that during the lapsed decades, Mauritius has witnessed a multitude of diseases. The most prominent and juvenile one world Chikungunya which has infested merely about 12000 Mauritians. Furthermore, the history of diseases in Mauritius is marked with Malaria epidemics since colonial regimes and through the intensive effort of the human race wellness sector, the latter has been entitle eradicated by the humanity Health Organization in 1973.Some years ago many of the realms citizens were not aw ar of what was d engue febrility fever fever fever even though it had already occurred in the country further there was not mass infection by the computer computer computer virus. Providenti eithery, the emergence of campaigns inform originallyhand was simply one or two and through the close collaboration between the Ministry Of Health and the infected individual the situation was under pick up and therefore no further arbitrary case of dengue were preserve.The Mauritian government is putting forward all steps to prevent an epidemic rather than to rush for controlling it when it has already advance the population. The Ministry of Health is working on a list which highlights all pee retaining sites and is identifying the hotspots of such(prenominal) sites that argon liable to cause proliferation of mosquitoes this process is carried out to each one year. Furthermore, an carry through plan is existence prep atomic number 18d by the ministry which gives a layout of which and what job is to be done by which section of the ministry or other stakeholders (anonymous, 2009).Dengue viruses ar genic by the genus genus genus genus genus Aedes species. Two known species the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus ar vectors of the disease. The Aedes albopictus bath be frame in large quantity all around the island whereas Aedes aegypti is said to be eradicated from the country. Surveillance on the abundance of mosquitoes is carried out by the entomological section throughout the year. All sites where mosquitoes that privy be vectors of disease argon seen, they be referred to the nearby wellness office for a larviciding to be carried out at that place and in the vicinity.Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is known as the Asian tiger mosquito (Robertson and Hu, 1988). Aedes albopictus is native to south-east Asia, but now occurs throughout the world. The worldwide spread of Aedes albopictus during the precedent 20 years has ca utilize catch in the center of public health of ficers and scientists over the possibility that the introduction of this species leave amplify the risk of epidemic dengue fever and other arboviruses in countries where it has become naturalized (Gubler, 2003).AimThe aim of this instruct is principal(prenominal)ly to evaluate the issuanceiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever in Mauritius. tension will be laid on the steps taken sooner, during and after(prenominal) the disease occurrence. This might highlight the minuscule accesss that Mauritius face in ordering to manage outbreaks of diseases.Objectives of studyThe objectives of this dissertation ar to evaluate the management, procedures and legislation that are implemented in Mauritius during outbreaks of dengue fever. Furthermore, most interest is geared towards the application of chemicals, preventive measures, and health facts of life of the public carried out by the Ministry of Health Quality of Life to prevent the occurrence of the diseas e and as well to annihi late(a) if ever found in the island. To polish off the effectiveness of fogging, larviciding carried out in the country and health education of the public.CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.0 Dengue2.0.1 General con positioningrationsDengue fever and dengue haemorrhagic fever were starting signal identified in the 1950s, during the dengue epidemics in Philippines and Thailand and by 1975 it had become a leading cause of hospitalization and death among children in many countries found in that region (Lloyd, 2003). In the year 1779 Egypt and Java had dengue-like epidemics, but it is thought that they were ca utilise by the chikungunya virus (Carey, 1971).Dengue virus belongs to the genus Flavivirus, Family Flavivaridae and there are 4 sero fibres of the virus ( hideout-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN 4). All the four serotypes washstand cause dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and even dengue shock syndrome (Ramchurn et al, 2009). The four viruses are closely re late but are distinct. Millions of commonwealth residing in tropical areas of the world are affected by epidemics of dengue fever. Dengue fever is associated with the intemperate form dengue hemorrhagic fever/ dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) that is seen mostly in children and nevertheless self-aggrandizings also are attained by the disease.In the nineteenth and first twentieth centuries dengue or dengue-like epidemics were reported in the Americas, Southern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Australia and on various islands in the Indian Ocean, South and substitution Pacific and the Caribbean (Ehrenkranz et al, 1971). largely these epidemics consisted of non foreboding(a) feverish illnesses, often coupled with rash and either muscularity or joint ails (Carey, 1971). Deaths occurred during dengue epidemics in Australia in 1897 and in Greece in 1928, when over century0 deaths were reported (Halstead, 1980). Hemorrhagic demonstrations, including gastroin testifyin al bleeding, were described during dengue epidemics in Texas and Louisiana in 1922 (Scott, 1923). Nevertheless through the foremost half of the twentieth century, dengue was generally described as a self-limited, nonfatal febrile illness, with occasional hemorrhagic manifestations such as red spots, shrewd hemorrhage from the nostril, in straitened circumstances(p) cavity, or nasopharynx, gingival bleeding and menorrhagia that completely once in a blue moon resulted in more puke or fatal outcomes.During the last decade, dengue infection along with its complications has been on the rise all over the world. Their geographical spread is increasing only 5 countries documented dengue in the 1950s but to date there are more than 100 countries reporting the incidence of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (Guha -Sapi Schimmer, 2005). Dengue is found in tropical and sub-tropical climates worldwide, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas (WHO, 2009).Dengue fever is a very morbif ic mosquito borne viral disease characterized by either a mild febrile syndrome or the classic incapacitating disease with abrupt attack of high fever, stern headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and bone or joint pains, sickness and vomiting and rash. Skin hemorrhages are not un honey oil. Leukopenia is unremarkably seen and thrombocytopenia may be sight (WHO 1997).Dengue is a flu-like mosquito-borne disease and has a soaring capacity for epidemic outbreaks, which according to the World Health Organization (2009) affects 50-100 million people each year in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Dengue is cited as being one of the most significant mosquito-borne disease affecting humans and as a major external public health concern (WHO 2009). Dengue fever is predominantly patrimonial by Aedes species which have adapted themselves to living near human base (Hales et al., 2002).The dengue virus is a member of the family Flaviviridae virus, transmitted through the a crid of infected Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquito. The Aedes aegypti mosquito commonly bites indoor and late in the afternoon whereas the skilled mosquito Aedes albopictus is an aggressive daytimelight sentence biter, which is also known to bite early in the morning, late afternoon (Knight and Hull, 1952) and at night (Murray and Marks, 1984). This biter is usually an outdoor biting mosquito, but it also bites indoors (Hawley, 1988). Generally the mosquitoes bite at ground level (MacDonald and Traub, 1960, cited in Hawley, 1988). Females will bite any area of exposed skin, but prefer the ankles and knees (McClelland et al., 1973 Robertson and Hu, 1935). The time amid the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and the apparition of symptoms ranges from 4 to 6 days, with a range of 3 to 14 days.2.0.2 Pathogenicity of Dengue fever1. Asymptomatic and mild infectionIt is very common.2. Dengue Fever ( unproblematic infection)Dengue fever is characterized by increase in b ody temperature severe aching of the eyebrow retro-ocular pain muscle and joint pain and widespread maculopapular inflammation. Conjunctiva may become red. Other common problems that may arise are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea and ab pain. business organization of light, sore throat, increase in the size of the lymph node and bleeding t devastationencies may also happen. The illness lasts 5 to 7 days.Immunity is lifelong. On the other side the incidence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Dengue shock syndrome increases if the soulfulness has immunity or has already been infected to begin with with a distinct serotype. Even after several calendar months of recovery some patients may experience depression and fatigue.3. Dengue Hemorrhagic feverThe well-known lark is bleeding. It happens when a person is infected twice but with a different dengue virus serotypes or infrequently by primary infection is common in kids at a lower place 15 years of Age (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). There is sudden rise in temperature and other manifestations of Dengue fever. Petechiae, effortless bruising, gingival bleeding and nosebleed are common. In severe cases bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract can be observed. In children, we can have an increase in the size of the short temper and the liver.4. Dengue Shock SyndromeThe prominent feature is hypotension. It normally occurs in people be subaltern 15 years of age. The clinical features include weak pulse with constrict blood pressure, dust-covered and clammy skin (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998).2.0.3 Mode of transmission of dengue virusChikungunya and dengue viruses are transmitted to humans by the bites of infected mosquitoes. In contrast, Aedes albopictus is vast and may be the only important vector of these viruses on the islands. Both species bite mainly during the daytime, particularly in the early hours after dawn and for 2-3 hours originally darkness. Aedes albopictus is more active outdoors whereas Ae. aegypti typic ly feeds and rests more indoors (WHO 2008).In the rhythm method of dengue, the vertebrate server is man and the Aedes species the vectors. The disease is acquired only when bitten by female mosquitoes, as the female feed on blood in order for the development of their nut whereas the male mosquitoes are not infected due to the fact that they feed only on nectars rather than blood. In 8-10 days the infected mosquito is able to transmit the virus to other people. Thus the cycle of transmission takes only 14 days. One dengue-infected female mosquito is capable of biting and infecting several people during one feeding session.The dengue mosquito frequents backyards in search of containers guardianship water inside and outside the home, such as cans, buckets, jars, and vases, pot plant dishes, birdbaths, boats, tyres discarded with no rims, roof gutters blocked by leaves smash containers, tarpaulins and black plastic.It can also breed in natural containers likebromeliadsfallen pal m fronds.In drier conditions it also breeds in water insubterranean sites such as wells, telecommunication pits, sump pits, gully traps.Transmission cycle of dengue results from a complex system based on several main constituents like the meanness of susceptible hosts, environmental conditions and the presence of one or more serotypes of the dengue virus. The number of confirmed dengue cases has been increasing owing to the fact that the world is undergoing quick urbanization and its population is also on the rise, disposal of non-biodegradable containers, rapid transportation and poor living conditions such as poor water supply and very rare scavenging services at squatter areas (Satwant, 2001).Various studies have shown that the Aedes albopictus is able to transmit all the 4 serotypes of dengue. Aedes albopictus mosquito can serve as an important maintenance vector of dengue viruses in endemic areas, and impudent endemic areas may be initiated by importation of vertically infec ted eggs (Gubler, 2002). That is the infected Aedes mosquito can pass the dengue virus to its progeny and when the eggs will develop into mature mosquitoes they will be already infected, therefrom capable of causing infection of human beings or even pass the virus to their progeny.Transmission cycle of dengue virus by the Aedes aegypti mosquito starts with a person infected with the dengue virus. The blood of the person will contain the virus thus circulating in his body and this is called a viremia which will last for about 5 days. During this period, an uninfected female Aedes aegypti mosquito bites the infected person and acquires the dengue virus.Within the mosquito, replication of the dengue virus occurs and this process usually takes between 8-12 days, after which the female mosquito can transmit the virus upon a blood meal. Once infected the virus takes 4-7 days to parallel within the new host (the person whom the infected mosquito bite) before inception of symptoms.Symptom s may last from three to 10 days, with an medium of five days, after the onset of symptoms. Hence, the disease persists several days after apparition of symptoms (CDC Dengue Slideset).2.0.4 Lifecycle of Aedes mosquitoThe mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle and they are as follows Egg, Larva, pupa, and adult. Each of these stages can be good recognized by their special appearance.Egg Eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water. Aedes species do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs separately. Aedes lay their eggs on yield soil that will be flooded by water. Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours.Larva The larva lives in the water where they in the end undergo a molting process to become a pupa. Pupa The pupal stage is a resting, non-feeding stage and is the time the mosquito turns into an adult. It takes about two days before the adult is full developed and upon complete development, the pupal skin splits and the mosquito emerges as an adult.Adult The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short time before flying away.In the Aedes mosquito family only the female bites because it requires protein to develop eggs, therefore if it bites a person infected with the dengue virus the mosquito becomes infectious after most 7 days. The mosquitoes are known to be biting at a highest frequency at dawn and dusk. Some more factsThe average lifespan of a mosquito of the genus Aedes in Nature is 2 weeksMosquitoes may lay eggs about 3 times in his life, and about 100 eggs are produced each time.The eggs can live in dry conditions until approximately 9 months, after which they can hatch if it is subject to conditions, i.e diet and water bloodlinehttp//dengue-feverdisease.blogspot.com/2008/02/lifecycle-of-aedes-mosquito.html accessed on 05.12.092.0.5 Investigation for dengue infectionsLaboratory resultsDecrease in the number of white blood cell and peripheral neutrophils in the blo od, supernormal increase in the number of lymphocytes in bloodstream and very low amount of platelets in the blood.RadiologyX-ray of the chest normally shows pleural explosion and seldom pericardiac effusionUltrasoundUsed to detect pericardial effusion and 2) presence of excess fluids in the gap amid the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organ.TestsLaboratory diagnosing is done by detection of virus in specimen-serum at the virology laboratory. Culture is done in cell line derived from A. albopictus cell. Immunoflurescent techniques are utilise to detect viral replications. The virus can be isolated in patients with fever.SerologyIgM is detectable in 90 % of patients by the 6th days of illness. serum peaceful early may give false negative result. IgM can also be detected 2-3 months after. It is not possible to identify serotype with serologic tests. In case where the IgM test is Positive it may imply recent infection with Dengue fever. However definitive diagnosis can on ly be do if the virus is isolated or the virus genome is detected by PCR. Seroconversion or boost in titer may indicate angelical infection.The appropriate samples for PCR test include plasma and serum. Molecular test is highly sensitive but it can be used in patients only with viraemia (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998).2.0.6 TreatmentThe managing of dengue fever can be enhanced with bed rest, passable fluid intake, plus control of fever and pain with antipyretics in humanitarian to analgesics (e.g. paracetamol). For the supplementary unmerciful manifestations of dengue virus infection, correct management requires early identification and swift intravenous fluid substitution. Blood transfusion may be necessary in cases.There is currently no vaccinum is available to shield against dengue infection. The current lack of a booming vaccine against the dengue virus causes saloon methods to be approached by plummeting disease vector population, with Integrated Pest Management computer pr ogrammes for mosquito control.These employ a mishmash of control strategies, including mosquito charge, source diminution, eradicating larvae and eradicating adult mosquitoes (Ooi et al. 2007). Eradicating adult mosquitoes alone is fruitless in controlling mosquito populations because it is complex to treat the unattainable habitat of the adults. Mosquito larvae are left to carry on their development, and they quickly trade in the adults. Nevertheless, mosquitoes can become resistant if pesticides are overused.2.0.7 Dengue fever in MauritiusDengue virus infections are emerging as the major ones in Southeast Asia. Global calefacient may worsen the occurrence of dengue fever. Since very last few years mixed outbreak of chikungunya and periodic cases of dengue fever have been reported on Runion Island and other South West Indian Ocean countries. From March 2005 till March 2006 it is estimated that about 204000 people in Runion Island may have been infected by the chikungunya virus, which furthermore shows that there is presence of the transmitting vectors of the disease on the island which are also the vectors of dengue fever as well. Hereafter, the other South West Indian ocean countries were not spared from infection from the chikungunya virus.An outbreak of dengue fever was reported in Madagascar more specifically in the city of Toamasina that started mid-January 2006 and rare cases of chikungunya were also reported mid-February. Maldives also have suffered from a dengue outbreak in year 2006 where 602 people were guess to be infected among which there were some severe form of dengue fever that is 64 dengue hemorrhagic fever cases and 9 cases of dengue shock syndrome (WHO 2006).In Mauritius the first case of dengue fever dates to the 1976s and it was contained thus limiting the disease from diffusion. Then we had a case of imported dengue from a person who visited an endemic dengue area in January 2008 (CDCU). The main vectors of the disease remain the Ae des mosquitoes, among which the Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector and Aedes albopictus the secondary one. The mosquito found to be spreading dengue fever and Chikungunya in Mauritius is the Aedes albopictus (CDCU 2009). It is to be noted that in Mauritius we had both the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, due to the intense anti-malaria bm during the year 1952 the primary carrier of the dengue fever, the Aedes aegypti have been successfully eradicated. Still very minute amounts of this mosquito can be seen whereas the Aedes albopictus is abundant. Dengue is transmitted from person to person through the biting of infected mosquitoes.Most recently we had a short-lived epidemic of re-emerged dengue fever in Mauritius that started in the month of June 2009 which was imported. The mild fever was first localized in the city of mien Louis, where there were 192 cases and then we did have some sporadic cases in other regions of the island. Mosquito fogging and larvic iding in whole Port Louis started on 3rd June 2009, and were repeated every seven days. Fogging was carried out outdoors early in the morning, early evenings and sometimes till late in the evenings (Dengue whole 2009).The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life of Mauritius took the situation as being severe and all medium possible to contain the disease were put into action. Like the specific Mobile Force and manpower from other Ministries which joined the Ministry of Health to fight the dengue fever. Public alertness campaigns on the requisite to lean and eliminate mosquito elevation sites at home and in the neighbourhood and to protect oneself against mosquito bites were carried out through radio, television and the press through a public nonpublic partnership. Detailed discipline leaflets were also distributed, door to door distribution of pamphlets showing pictures of possible breeding sites for mosquitoes and products to be used to prevent mosquito bite were carried out by the primary health care personnels. Target groups included the public, community groups and school children (Ramchurn et al, 2009).By the end of the month August no new or suspected cases of dengue were recorded in any of the countrys hospital. But still the control and prevention program were continued throughout the island as the summer season was coming near hence reappearance of the dengue fever was possible due to the ambient temperature, favorable for larvae development. The fear of having the virus again was due to the possibility of the infected mosquitoes to pass the virus to their progeny. Fortunately, till February 2010 no suspected case of dengue fever was reported from any in the country (Dengue Unit 2010).2.1 Vector surveillance and control programEver since mosquitoes are capable of transmitting diseases like dengue and chikungunya, till now it has not been possible to eradicate the mosquitoes completely from their originating site. The better way to reminder or co ntrol vector-borne diseases is to control or limit the population of the vector to such an extent that disease transmission is very low or even stopped. In order to achieve this goal, it is imperative to know all about the mosquito involved in the transmission of the disease.Detailed knowledge of all aspects such as the breeding sites, different features of the mosquito at different stages, feeding habits, mating, resting and structure and most importantly without forgetting the lifecycle of the mosquito, are the main required things in order to be able to break the chain of transmission. Furthermore, the only way to prevent infection of people who have not suffered from dengue is to control the population of dengue vector (Ooi et al.2001) and of course personal precaution has also proved to be effective in reducing the risk of being infected by a mosquito.Since no vaccine is yet available for dengue the only mode to control dengue fever is the control the amount of the disease vect or that is of the Aedes mosquitoes. The control strategies of these mosquitoes are 1) carrying out larviciding -spraying a chemical called abate in any water retaining place which kill the larvae of the mosquitoes hence interrupting the cycle to be completed, 2) fogging operation- a thermal fogger is used to propel fumes of Aqua K-Othriner which when is in contact with a mosquito kills it, thus the amount of developed or simply mature mosquitoes are reduced and 3) health education- talks are organized for the members of the public, for children in schools, colleges, etc.Entomological survey is an important and integral part of dengue prevention and control. The effect of the intervention by the community can directly affect the ecology of the vectors that is the Aedes mosquitoes.The familial Disease suppress Unit (CDCU) is the unit which is mostly come to for the control of genetic diseases such as Malaria, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, and other infectious diseases. In Mauritius, surveillance, disease prevention and education of infectious diseases are mainly carried out by the Health Inspectorate Cadre. In Mauritius, we have the Public Health Act (Section 32A) which is used in case where there is presence of a mosquito borne disease in the island.The potential for depredation to prevent pathogen invasion or reduce disease prevalence in a host population also has implications for the biological control of vector populations. Predators have been introduced, or proposed, as biological control agents of vectors for various diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and Lyme disease (Jenkins 1964 Legner 1995 Stauffer et al. 1997 Samish Rehacek 1999 Scholte et al. 2005 Kumar Hwang 2006 Ostfeld et al. 2006 Walker Lynch 2007). some(prenominal) recent studies argue that predator introductions led to a decline in local cases of dengue fever in Vietnam and Thailand (Kay Nam 2005 Kittayapong et al. 2008), and malaria in India (Ghosh et al. 2005 Ghosh Dash 2007).2.2 Biology of Aedes albopictus (Skuse)Aedes albopictus are two winged insects from the family Culicidae of the order Diptera. They are among the best known groups due to their importance as pests and as vectors of diseases. They are easily identified due to a combination of the following characters long trunk projecting head charisma of scales on the wing veins, a tassel of scales along the foundation boundary of the wing, and the typical wing venation, the second, fourth and fifth longitudinal veins being branched (Miyagi and Toma 2000).Female mosquitoes feed on blood and they have highly narrow down mothparts for piercing host skin and blood sucking (Wahid et al. 2002). Aedes species are normally day-time bitters and active during the day. During this time, they have peaks of landing and biting activity. The peak time for Aedes albopictus occurred about one hour after sunrise and then before sunset (Abu Hassan et al. 1996). Nevertheless, the rate of biting varies depending on the mosquito age and time of the day (Xue and Barnard 1996).CHAPTER 3 information COLLECTION3.1 originationIn this chapter, a summary of the various steps that was undertaken to finalize the research is attempted. The research work was started as from the month of September 2009 to the end of January 2010.3.2 METHODOLOGYIn order to assess the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever, data were collected from the different partners who are involved in the control and prevention of dengue fever in Mauritius.Such data were collected from books, newspapers, published articles, magazines and official statistics from the Central Statistics Office, Dengue Unit, ancestral Disease Control Unit and the Ministry of Health Quality of Life.Moreover, constructive discussions were entertained with people who are in touch with the matters connecting to the piece of work. Search through the internet, check of available documents and powerful classifying the information th at would be used during the study.3.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINEDQuestions related with the way of application of the different control measures were selected for analysis from the filled hesitationnaires. Moreover, each particular question was analyzed by using SPSS software which provided the frequency and percentages and hence Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to express the data in forms of percentages, tables, figures, graphs, pie charts and charts. Chapter 4 purpose I-Data Analysis4.01 IntroductionThis chapter of the thesis will be dealing with the data collected from different stakeholders involved in the fight against dengue fever. Data collected mainly from the Communicable Disease Control Unit, Dengue Unit, and certain Health Offices of the country and the media will be expressed in figures. This section will be divided in to two parts data analysis and press cot analysis. Much attention will be oriented towards the control measures in Port Louis, as the maximum number of cases occurred there and eventually the island in whole.4.02 Progress of the disease through June 2009 in Port LouisFigure 4.1 Number of cases each day during the month of June 2009From figure 4.1 it can be seen that the first case was detected on 2nd June 2009 and the maximum number of cases reported to the hospitals was around the tenth to 13th day of the same month. The number of confirmed cases by the end of June 2009 had decreased to less than five.4.03 Age of people infected with dengue virusFrom the in a higher place chart (Fig 4.2) it can seen that about 34.55 % of the total number of cases (246 confirmed) of dengue were vulnerable ones that is the young and the elderly.4.04 Aqua K Othriner used for fogging processAqua K Othriner is a chemical used in potpourri with another chemical substance called Nebolr, in thermal foggers to kill adult mosquitoes. Normally, the fogger produces fumes which in fact are fine droplets of the mixture which when in contact with a m osquito causes its death. The first day of fogging was started on 2nd June 2009 with a minimum cubic centimeter of Aqua K Othriner used, on the seventh day the maximum and throughout the rest of the days varying just a little in amount except for the fourteenth day.4.05 Number of inspections carried out during the past 8 years throughout theCountryStarting from the year 2001 till 2005 from the graph (fig 4.4) the number of inspections carried out by the health inspectorate cadre shows a slight decrease and suddenly in 2006 the number increases to approximately 3 fold than that in 2005. In year 2007, the amount of inspections carried again decreases to 112,087 and eventually for 2008 the number decreases a bit more.4.06 Number of sanitary notices served during the past 8 yearsPublic Health ActSanitary notices are normally issued to the author of nuisance, as for in this case the notices served were to cause removal of water collected in used tyres, drums, roof tops, etc. From the yea r 2001 till 2005 the number of such type of notices served was ranging between 4933 and 8013. For 2006 the figure was the highest with 10657 of notices served and for the remaining 2 years a gradual decrease was noted.4.07 Number of contraventions taken for none compliance with the PublicHealth Laws NoticesFigurPreventing Dengue Fever in the MauritiusPreventing Dengue Fever in the MauritiusINTRODUCTIONMauritius is a small tropical island located at latitude 20 18 0 S and longitude 57 34 60 E. It has a tropical climatic condition. Mauritius has an area of about 2,040 sq km and is located to about 2000 kilometers from east west of Africa and some 800 kilometers from Madagascar. The positioning of Mauritius makes the latter a tropical country with moderately lofty temperature throughout the year. Winter and summer are the seasons that manifest onto the island.The island of Mauritius finds itself as one of the most accessible islands in the Indian Ocean. Situated amid Runion island and Rodrigues island, the island of Mauritius has gained the reputation, through the course of time of that of the key and star of the Indian Ocean. The Mauritian population estimates for the year 2008 was about 1, 260, 781 with an annual growth rate of 0.7 %.Since the country is undergoing major developmental changes many industries have implanted here and thus the number of expatriates in the country is on the rise. These people may be a carrier of the disease and of course those Mauritians visiting the dengue endemic areas can also become infected and bring the disease in the country.It is an indisputable fact that during the lapsed decades, Mauritius has witnessed a multitude of diseases. The most prominent and recent one being Chikungunya which has infested merely about 12000 Mauritians. Furthermore, the history of diseases in Mauritius is marked with Malaria epidemics since colonial regimes and through the intensive effort of the Public Health sector, the latter has been proclaim ed eradicated by the World Health Organization in 1973.Some years ago many of the realms citizens were not aware of what was dengue fever even though it had already occurred in the country but there was not mass infection by the virus. Providentially, the number of cases reported beforehand was only one or two and through the close collaboration between the Ministry Of Health and the infected person the situation was under control and hence no further positive case of dengue were recorded.The Mauritian government is putting forward all steps to prevent an epidemic rather than to rush for controlling it when it has already hit the population. The Ministry of Health is working on a list which highlights all water retaining sites and is identifying the hotspots of such sites that are liable to cause proliferation of mosquitoes this process is carried out each year. Furthermore, an action plan is being prepared by the ministry which gives a layout of which and what job is to be done by which section of the ministry or other stakeholders (anonymous, 2009).Dengue viruses are transmitted by the Aedes species. Two known species the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are vectors of the disease. The Aedes albopictus can be found in large quantity all around the island whereas Aedes aegypti is said to be eradicated from the country. Surveillance on the abundance of mosquitoes is carried out by the entomological section throughout the year. All sites where mosquitoes that can be vectors of disease are seen, they are referred to the nearby health office for a larviciding to be carried out at that place and in the vicinity.Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is known as the Asian Tiger mosquito (Robertson and Hu, 1988). Aedes albopictus is native to Southeast Asia, but now occurs throughout the world. The worldwide spread of Aedes albopictus during the precedent 20 years has caused apprehension in the midst of public health officers and scientists over the possibility that the introdu ction of this species will amplify the risk of epidemic dengue fever and other arboviruses in countries where it has become established (Gubler, 2003).AimThe aim of this study is mainly to evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever in Mauritius. Emphasis will be laid on the steps taken before, during and after the disease occurrence. This might highlight the shortcomings that Mauritius face in order to manage outbreaks of diseases.Objectives of studyThe objectives of this dissertation are to evaluate the management, procedures and legislation that are implemented in Mauritius during outbreaks of dengue fever. Furthermore, most interest is geared towards the application of chemicals, preventive measures, and health education of the public carried out by the Ministry of Health Quality of Life to prevent the occurrence of the disease and also to annihilate if ever found in the island. To elucidate the effectiveness of fogging, larviciding carried out in the country and health education of the public.CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.0 Dengue2.0.1 General considerationsDengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever were first identified in the 1950s, during the dengue epidemics in Philippines and Thailand and by 1975 it had become a leading cause of hospitalization and death among children in many countries found in that region (Lloyd, 2003). In the year 1779 Egypt and Java had dengue-like epidemics, but it is thought that they were caused by the chikungunya virus (Carey, 1971).Dengue virus belongs to the genus Flavivirus, Family Flavivaridae and there are four serotypes of the virus (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN 4). All the four serotypes can cause dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and even dengue shock syndrome (Ramchurn et al, 2009). The four viruses are closely related but are distinct. Millions of people residing in tropical areas of the world are affected by epidemics of dengue fever. Dengue fever is associated with the sev ere form dengue hemorrhagic fever/ dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) that is seen mostly in children and nevertheless adults also are attained by the disease.In the 19th and early 20th centuries dengue or dengue-like epidemics were reported in the Americas, Southern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Australia and on various islands in the Indian Ocean, South and Central Pacific and the Caribbean (Ehrenkranz et al, 1971). Generally these epidemics consisted of nonfatal feverish illnesses, often coupled with rash and either muscle or joint pains (Carey, 1971). Deaths occurred during dengue epidemics in Australia in 1897 and in Greece in 1928, when over 1000 deaths were reported (Halstead, 1980). Hemorrhagic demonstrations, including gastrointestinal bleeding, were described during dengue epidemics in Texas and Louisiana in 1922 (Scott, 1923). Nevertheless through the first half of the 20th century, dengue was generally described as a self-limited, nonfatal febrile illness, with occasional hemorrhagic manifestations such as red spots, acute hemorrhage from the nostril, nasal cavity, or nasopharynx, gingival bleeding and menorrhagia that only once in a blue moon resulted in more stern or fatal outcomes.During the last decade, dengue infection along with its complications has been on the rise all over the world. Their geographical spread is increasing only 5 countries documented dengue in the 1950s but to date there are more than 100 countries reporting the incidence of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (Guha -Sapi Schimmer, 2005). Dengue is found in tropical and sub-tropical climates worldwide, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas (WHO, 2009).Dengue fever is a very infectious mosquito borne viral disease characterized by either a mild febrile syndrome or the classic incapacitating disease with abrupt onset of high fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and bone or joint pains, nausea and vomiting and rash. Skin hemorrhages are no t uncommon. Leukopenia is usually seen and thrombocytopenia may be observed (WHO 1997).Dengue is a flu-like mosquito-borne disease and has a soaring capacity for epidemic outbreaks, which according to the World Health Organization (2009) affects 50-100 million people each year in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Dengue is cited as being one of the most significant mosquito-borne disease affecting humans and as a major international public health concern (WHO 2009). Dengue fever is predominantly transmitted by Aedes species which have adapted themselves to living near human habitation (Hales et al., 2002).The dengue virus is a member of the family Flaviviridae virus, transmitted through the biting of infected Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquito. The Aedes aegypti mosquito normally bites indoor and late in the afternoon whereas the proficient mosquito Aedes albopictus is an aggressive daytime biter, which is also known to bite early in the morning, late aftern oon (Knight and Hull, 1952) and at night (Murray and Marks, 1984). This biter is usually an outdoor biting mosquito, but it also bites indoors (Hawley, 1988). Generally the mosquitoes bite at ground level (MacDonald and Traub, 1960, cited in Hawley, 1988). Females will bite any area of exposed skin, but prefer the ankles and knees (McClelland et al., 1973 Robertson and Hu, 1935). The time amid the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and the apparition of symptoms ranges from 4 to 6 days, with a range of 3 to 14 days.2.0.2 Pathogenicity of Dengue fever1. Asymptomatic and mild infectionIt is very common.2. Dengue Fever (primary infection)Dengue fever is characterized by increase in body temperature severe aching of the forehead retro-ocular pain muscle and joint pain and widespread maculopapular inflammation. Conjunctiva may become red. Other common problems that may arise are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Fear of light, sore throat, increase in the size of the l ymph node and bleeding tendencies may also happen. The illness lasts 5 to 7 days.Immunity is lifelong. On the other side the incidence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Dengue Shock syndrome increases if the person has immunity or has already been infected before with a different serotype. Even after several months of recovery some patients may experience depression and fatigue.3. Dengue Hemorrhagic feverThe well-known feature is bleeding. It happens when a person is infected twice but with a different dengue virus serotypes or infrequently by primary infection is common in kids Under 15 years of Age (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). There is sudden rise in temperature and other manifestations of Dengue fever. Petechiae, effortless bruising, gingival bleeding and epistaxis are common. In severe cases bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract can be observed. In children, we can have an increase in the size of the spleen and the liver.4. Dengue Shock SyndromeThe prominent feature is hypotension. It normally occurs in people below 15 years of age. The clinical features include weak pulse with narrow blood pressure, cold and clammy skin (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998).2.0.3 Mode of transmission of dengue virusChikungunya and dengue viruses are transmitted to humans by the bites of infected mosquitoes. In contrast, Aedes albopictus is abundant and may be the only important vector of these viruses on the islands. Both species bite mainly during the daytime, particularly in the early hours after dawn and for 2-3 hours before darkness. Aedes albopictus is more active outdoors whereas Ae. aegypti typically feeds and rests more indoors (WHO 2008).In the cycle of dengue, the vertebrate host is man and the Aedes species the vectors. The disease is acquired only when bitten by female mosquitoes, as the female feed on blood in order for the development of their eggs whereas the male mosquitoes are not infectious due to the fact that they feed only on nectars rather than blood. In 8-10 days the infected mosquito is able to transmit the virus to other people. Thus the cycle of transmission takes only 14 days. One dengue-infected female mosquito is capable of biting and infecting several people during one feeding session.The dengue mosquito frequents backyards in search of containers holding water inside and outside the home, such as cans, buckets, jars, and vases, pot plant dishes, birdbaths, boats, tyres discarded with no rims, roof gutters blocked by leaves striking containers, tarpaulins and black plastic.It can also breed in natural containers likebromeliadsfallen palm fronds.In drier conditions it also breeds in water insubterranean sites such as wells, telecommunication pits, sump pits, gully traps.Transmission cycle of dengue results from a complex system based on several main constituents like the density of susceptible hosts, environmental conditions and the presence of one or more serotypes of the dengue virus. The number of confirmed dengue cases has been i ncreasing owing to the fact that the world is undergoing rapid urbanization and its population is also on the rise, disposal of non-biodegradable containers, rapid transportation and poor living conditions such as poor water supply and very rare scavenging services at squatter areas (Satwant, 2001).Various studies have shown that the Aedes albopictus is able to transmit all the 4 serotypes of dengue. Aedes albopictus mosquito can serve as an important maintenance vector of dengue viruses in endemic areas, and new endemic areas may be initiated by importation of vertically infected eggs (Gubler, 2002). That is the infected Aedes mosquito can pass the dengue virus to its progeny and when the eggs will develop into mature mosquitoes they will be already infected, hence capable of causing infection of human beings or even pass the virus to their progeny.Transmission cycle of dengue virus by the Aedes aegypti mosquito starts with a person infected with the dengue virus. The blood of the person will contain the virus thus circulating in his body and this is called a viremia which will last for about 5 days. During this period, an uninfected female Aedes aegypti mosquito bites the infected person and acquires the dengue virus.Within the mosquito, replication of the dengue virus occurs and this process usually takes between 8-12 days, after which the female mosquito can transmit the virus upon a blood meal. Once infected the virus takes 4-7 days to replicate within the new host (the person whom the infected mosquito bite) before inception of symptoms.Symptoms may last from three to 10 days, with an average of five days, after the onset of symptoms. Hence, the disease persists several days after apparition of symptoms (CDC Dengue Slideset).2.0.4 Lifecycle of Aedes mosquitoThe mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle and they are as follows Egg, Larva, pupa, and adult. Each of these stages can be easily recognized by their special appear ance.Egg Eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water. Aedes species do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs separately. Aedes lay their eggs on damp soil that will be flooded by water. Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours.Larva The larva lives in the water where they eventually undergo a molting process to become a pupa. Pupa The pupal stage is a resting, non-feeding stage and is the time the mosquito turns into an adult. It takes about two days before the adult is fully developed and upon complete development, the pupal skin splits and the mosquito emerges as an adult.Adult The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short time before flying away.In the Aedes mosquito family only the female bites because it requires protein to develop eggs, therefore if it bites a person infected with the dengue virus the mosquito becomes infectious after approximately 7 days. The mosquitoes are known to be biting at a highest frequency at dawn and dusk. Some more factsThe average lifespan of a mosquito of the genus Aedes in Nature is 2 weeksMosquitoes may lay eggs about 3 times in his life, and about 100 eggs are produced each time.The eggs can live in dry conditions until approximately 9 months, after which they can hatch if it is subject to conditions, i.e food and waterSourcehttp//dengue-feverdisease.blogspot.com/2008/02/lifecycle-of-aedes-mosquito.html accessed on 05.12.092.0.5 Investigation for dengue infectionsLaboratory resultsDecrease in the number of white blood cell and peripheral neutrophils in the blood, abnormal increase in the number of lymphocytes in bloodstream and very low amount of platelets in the blood.RadiologyX-ray of the chest normally shows pleural effusion and seldom pericardial effusionUltrasoundUsed to detect pericardial effusion and 2) presence of excess fluids in the gap amid the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organ.TestsLaboratory diagnosis is done by detection of virus in specimen -serum at the virology laboratory. Culture is done in cell line derived from A. albopictus cell. Immunoflurescent techniques are used to detect viral replications. The virus can be isolated in patients with fever.SerologyIgM is detectable in 90 % of patients by the 6th days of illness. Serum collected early may give false negative result. IgM can also be detected 2-3 months after. It is not possible to identify serotype with serological tests. In case where the IgM test is Positive it may imply recent infection with Dengue fever. However definitive diagnosis can only be made if the virus is isolated or the virus genome is detected by PCR. Seroconversion or boost in titer may indicate fresh infection.The appropriate samples for PCR test include plasma and serum. Molecular test is highly sensitive but it can be used in patients only with viraemia (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998).2.0.6 TreatmentThe managing of dengue fever can be enhanced with bed rest, passable fluid intake, plus control of fever and pain with antipyretics in addition to analgesics (e.g. paracetamol). For the supplementary ruthless manifestations of dengue virus infection, correct management requires early identification and swift intravenous fluid substitution. Blood transfusion may be necessary in cases.There is currently no vaccine is available to shield against dengue infection. The current lack of a booming vaccine against the dengue virus causes prevention methods to be approached by plummeting disease vector population, with Integrated Pest Management programs for mosquito control.These employ a mishmash of control strategies, including mosquito surveillance, source diminution, eradicating larvae and eradicating adult mosquitoes (Ooi et al. 2007). Eradicating adult mosquitoes alone is fruitless in controlling mosquito populations because it is complex to treat the unattainable habitat of the adults. Mosquito larvae are left to carry on their development, and they quickly swap the adults. Nevert heless, mosquitoes can become resistant if pesticides are overused.2.0.7 Dengue fever in MauritiusDengue virus infections are emerging as the major ones in Southeast Asia. Global warming may worsen the occurrence of dengue fever. Since very last few years mixed outbreak of chikungunya and periodic cases of dengue fever have been reported on Runion Island and other South West Indian Ocean countries. From March 2005 till March 2006 it is estimated that about 204000 people in Runion Island may have been infected by the chikungunya virus, which furthermore shows that there is presence of the transmitting vectors of the disease on the island which are also the vectors of dengue fever as well. Hereafter, the other South West Indian ocean countries were not spared from infection from the chikungunya virus.An outbreak of dengue fever was reported in Madagascar more specifically in the city of Toamasina that started mid-January 2006 and rare cases of chikungunya were also reported mid-Februa ry. Maldives also have suffered from a dengue outbreak in year 2006 where 602 people were suspected to be infected among which there were some severe form of dengue fever that is 64 dengue hemorrhagic fever cases and 9 cases of dengue shock syndrome (WHO 2006).In Mauritius the first case of dengue fever dates to the 1976s and it was contained thus limiting the disease from spreading. Then we had a case of imported dengue from a person who visited an endemic dengue area in January 2008 (CDCU). The main vectors of the disease remain the Aedes mosquitoes, among which the Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector and Aedes albopictus the secondary one. The mosquito found to be spreading dengue fever and Chikungunya in Mauritius is the Aedes albopictus (CDCU 2009). It is to be noted that in Mauritius we had both the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, due to the intense anti-malaria campaign during the year 1952 the primary carrier of the dengue fever, the Aedes aegypti hav e been successfully eradicated. Still very minute amounts of this mosquito can be seen whereas the Aedes albopictus is abundant. Dengue is transmitted from person to person through the biting of infected mosquitoes.Most recently we had a short-lived epidemic of re-emerged dengue fever in Mauritius that started in the month of June 2009 which was imported. The mild fever was first localized in the city of Port Louis, where there were 192 cases and then we did have some sporadic cases in other regions of the island. Mosquito fogging and larviciding in whole Port Louis started on 3rd June 2009, and were repeated every seven days. Fogging was carried out outdoors early in the morning, early evenings and sometimes till late in the evenings (Dengue Unit 2009).The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life of Mauritius took the situation as being severe and all medium possible to contain the disease were put into action. Like the Special Mobile Force and manpower from other Ministries which jo ined the Ministry of Health to fight the dengue fever. Public alertness campaigns on the requisite to hunt and eliminate mosquito breeding sites at home and in the neighbourhood and to protect oneself against mosquito bites were carried out through radio, television and the press through a public private partnership. Detailed information leaflets were also distributed, door to door distribution of pamphlets showing pictures of possible breeding sites for mosquitoes and products to be used to prevent mosquito bite were carried out by the primary health care personnels. Target groups included the public, community groups and school children (Ramchurn et al, 2009).By the end of the month August no new or suspected cases of dengue were recorded in any of the countrys hospital. But still the control and prevention program were continued throughout the island as the summer season was coming near hence reappearance of the dengue fever was possible due to the ambient temperature, favorable for larvae development. The fear of having the virus again was due to the possibility of the infected mosquitoes to pass the virus to their progeny. Fortunately, till February 2010 no suspected case of dengue fever was reported from any in the country (Dengue Unit 2010).2.1 Vector surveillance and control programEver since mosquitoes are capable of transmitting diseases like dengue and chikungunya, till now it has not been possible to eradicate the mosquitoes completely from their originating site. The best way to monitor or control vector-borne diseases is to control or limit the population of the vector to such an extent that disease transmission is very low or even stopped. In order to achieve this goal, it is imperative to know all about the mosquito involved in the transmission of the disease.Detailed knowledge of all aspects such as the breeding sites, different features of the mosquito at different stages, feeding habits, mating, resting and structure and most importantly wit hout forgetting the lifecycle of the mosquito, are the main required things in order to be able to break the chain of transmission. Furthermore, the only way to prevent infection of people who have not suffered from dengue is to control the population of dengue vector (Ooi et al.2001) and of course personal precaution has also proved to be effective in reducing the risk of being infected by a mosquito.Since no vaccine is yet available for dengue the only mode to control dengue fever is the control the amount of the disease vector that is of the Aedes mosquitoes. The control strategies of these mosquitoes are 1) carrying out larviciding -spraying a chemical called abate in any water retaining place which kill the larvae of the mosquitoes hence interrupting the cycle to be completed, 2) fogging operation- a thermal fogger is used to propel fumes of Aqua K-Othriner which when is in contact with a mosquito kills it, thus the amount of developed or simply mature mosquitoes are reduced an d 3) health education- talks are organized for the members of the public, for children in schools, colleges, etc.Entomological survey is an important and integral part of dengue prevention and control. The effect of the intervention by the community can directly affect the ecology of the vectors that is the Aedes mosquitoes.The Communicable Disease Control Unit (CDCU) is the unit which is mostly concerned for the control of communicable diseases such as Malaria, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, and other infectious diseases. In Mauritius, surveillance, disease prevention and education of infectious diseases are mainly carried out by the Health Inspectorate Cadre. In Mauritius, we have the Public Health Act (Section 32A) which is used in case where there is presence of a mosquito borne disease in the island.The potential for predation to prevent pathogen invasion or reduce disease prevalence in a host population also has implications for the biological control of vector populations. Predat ors have been introduced, or proposed, as biological control agents of vectors for various diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and Lyme disease (Jenkins 1964 Legner 1995 Stauffer et al. 1997 Samish Rehacek 1999 Scholte et al. 2005 Kumar Hwang 2006 Ostfeld et al. 2006 Walker Lynch 2007). Several recent studies suggest that predator introductions led to a decline in local cases of dengue fever in Vietnam and Thailand (Kay Nam 2005 Kittayapong et al. 2008), and malaria in India (Ghosh et al. 2005 Ghosh Dash 2007).2.2 Biology of Aedes albopictus (Skuse)Aedes albopictus are two winged insects from the family Culicidae of the order Diptera. They are among the best known groups due to their importance as pests and as vectors of diseases. They are easily identified due to a combination of the following characters long trunk projecting head charisma of scales on the wing veins, a tassel of scales along the posterior boundary of the wing, and the typical wing venation, the second, fou rth and fifth longitudinal veins being branched (Miyagi and Toma 2000).Female mosquitoes feed on blood and they have highly specialized mothparts for piercing host skin and blood sucking (Wahid et al. 2002). Aedes species are normally day-time bitters and active during the day. During this time, they have peaks of landing and biting activity. The peak time for Aedes albopictus occurred about one hour after sunrise and then before sunset (Abu Hassan et al. 1996). Nevertheless, the rate of biting varies depending on the mosquito age and time of the day (Xue and Barnard 1996).CHAPTER 3DATA COLLECTION3.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, a summary of the various steps that was undertaken to finalize the research is attempted. The research work was started as from the month of September 2009 to the end of January 2010.3.2 METHODOLOGYIn order to assess the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever, data were collected from the different partners who are involved in th e control and prevention of dengue fever in Mauritius.Such data were collected from books, newspapers, published articles, magazines and official statistics from the Central Statistics Office, Dengue Unit, Communicable Disease Control Unit and the Ministry of Health Quality of Life.Moreover, constructive discussions were entertained with people who are in touch with the matters connecting to the piece of work. Search through the internet, review of available documents and properly classifying the information that would be used during the study.3.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINEDQuestions related with the way of application of the different control measures were selected for analysis from the filled questionnaires. Moreover, each particular question was analyzed by using SPSS software which provided the frequency and percentages and hence Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to express the data in forms of percentages, tables, figures, graphs, pie charts and charts. Chapter 4Part I-Data Analysis4.01 IntroductionThis chapter of the thesis will be dealing with the data collected from different stakeholders involved in the fight against dengue fever. Data collected mainly from the Communicable Disease Control Unit, Dengue Unit, and certain Health Offices of the country and the media will be expressed in figures. This section will be divided in to two parts data analysis and press cot analysis. Much attention will be oriented towards the control measures in Port Louis, as the maximum number of cases occurred there and eventually the island in whole.4.02 Progress of the disease through June 2009 in Port LouisFigure 4.1 Number of cases each day during the month of June 2009From figure 4.1 it can be seen that the first case was detected on 2nd June 2009 and the maximum number of cases reported to the hospitals was around the 10th to 13th day of the same month. The number of confirmed cases by the end of June 2009 had decreased to less than five.4.03 Age of people i nfected with dengue virusFrom the above chart (Fig 4.2) it can seen that about 34.55 % of the total number of cases (246 confirmed) of dengue were vulnerable ones that is the young and the elderly.4.04 Aqua K Othriner used for fogging processAqua K Othriner is a chemical used in mixture with another chemical substance called Nebolr, in thermal foggers to kill adult mosquitoes. Normally, the fogger produces fumes which in fact are fine droplets of the mixture which when in contact with a mosquito causes its death. The first day of fogging was started on 2nd June 2009 with a minimum cubic centimeter of Aqua K Othriner used, on the 7th day the maximum and throughout the rest of the days varying just a little in amount except for the 14th day.4.05 Number of inspections carried out during the past 8 years throughout theCountryStarting from the year 2001 till 2005 from the graph (fig 4.4) the number of inspections carried out by the health inspectorate cadre shows a slight decrease and su ddenly in 2006 the number increases to approximately 3 fold than that in 2005. In year 2007, the amount of inspections carried again decreases to 112,087 and eventually for 2008 the number decreases a bit more.4.06 Number of sanitary notices served during the past 8 yearsPublic Health ActSanitary notices are normally issued to the author of nuisance, as for in this case the notices served were to cause removal of water collected in used tyres, drums, roof tops, etc. From the year 2001 till 2005 the number of such type of notices served was ranging between 4933 and 8013. For 2006 the figure was the highest with 10657 of notices served and for the remaining 2 years a gradual decrease was noted.4.07 Number of contraventions taken for none compliance with the PublicHealth Laws NoticesFigur

Callenges Of Life :: essays research papers

Challenges of LifeJerry is a young boy in, the story of Through the Tunnel. He has a truly bigchallenge which is swimming through a tunnel. By swimming through the tunnel hewill be able to prove to the one-time(a) boys and especially to himself that he can reach hisgoal if he sets his mind to it. Jing-mei and her go from the story Two Kinds, also have a couple of challenges they must(prenominal) face. In this story, the set out is so eagerfor her daughter to excel, that she pushes and pushes until the daughter finallypushes back.Jerry wants to do something very challenging. He wants to swim through along tunnel, except must hold his breath some throughout his journey. When he sees boys (older boys) diving into the water, lasting a long time under water, and comingout a couple of meters away, he tries to so the same thing. It seems to be very easyfor them. Jerry tries to do this a couple of times, but he is not successful. subsequently his unrewarded attempts he decides to pra ctice holding his breath for a long time beforetrying it again. A controlled impatience makes him wait.In the story of Two Kinds, a mother tries to make her daughter do thingsthat she is not interested in doing. Jing-mei had always head her mother talkingabout America and how wonderful and variant life would be once they arrived. Jing-mei never liked the plans her mother had for her. Her mother wanted her to bea perfect kid. (Or at least what her mother thinking o perfect child ought to be like.)Jing-meis greatest challenge was to inform her mother that she wasnt interested inbeing the perfect child. She entirely wished to be accepted as herself. One dayJing-mei performed a musical piece on a piano at a talent show. After her horribleperformance, father, mother, and Jing-mei drove home disappointed, especiallymother. Jing-mei went to her room went they arrived home. Her mother went toJing-meis room shouting and yelling at her about her awful performance. talkedback and told her m other that is this wasnt for her to be so controlling of her life. Why dont you like me the way I am? exclaimed Jing-mei.As I mentioned previously, Jing-meis mother wanted her daughter to be aperfect child. She sent her to piano lessons with a retired piano teacher. Mothercleaned houses for a living. She would find magazines in the houses she worked for.

William Wordswoths I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud versus The Solitary Re

I Wandered lonely(a) as a Cloud and The Solitary Reaper ar some(prenominal) written by William Wordsworth and enjoy great popularity among the readers. When cultivation the two poems, the readers flock feel that the nuances of them atomic number 18 antithetic. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud affects the readers with the gaiety of the daffodils, while The Solitary Reaper transfers a understanding of sadness. Apart from the vocabulary of the poems and the figures of speech used, the use of sound and stanza also contributes a lot to the creation of different tones.Firstly, the length of each stanza of the two poems has much to do with the creation of the tone. Shorter stanzas argon easier to read comp ard with longer ones. And it is a suitable form to carry such tones as happy, light, and peaceful and so on. On the contrary, longer stanzas always appear denser, and the feelings conveyed ar often heavy and sad. Thus, longer stanzas are fit for the expression of sad feelings. I W andered Lonely as a Cloud and The Solitary Reaper are two typical examples of this. The former has six lines in each stanza while the last mentioned has eight. When the readers read the two poems, it is easy for them to grasp the happiness of the daffodils as healthy as the sadness that is conveyed by the ?solitary reaper?. The readers can always right away finish reading each stanza of I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, the same way that the daffodils are ?fluttering and dancing in the breeze? sprightly. Similarly, when reading The Solitary Reaper, the readers cannot help but feel that the many lines of the poem are just like the much sadness that seems to last on and on. And it is difficult for the readers to allow out of the sad feeling that the poet has set in the poem. The lengths of the stanzas alone are of great help i... ... varies more. This also contributes to the overall tone of the poem. When reading I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, the readers can easily grasp a sense of h appiness, because the sentences, which are neatly written, are more music like and are benignant to read. However, when reading The Solitary Reaper, with the varying of the lengths of the lines, the readers? feeling cannot help being ? alter? and become quite complicated. The length of each line also helps create the tone of the poems. To sum up, the tone of a poem is not simply attached with the meaning of each line, in other words, even though the readers don?t quite get the meaning of one poem, they can still greet the tone of it. Because the basic elements, such as sound and stanza also play in truth important roles in the poem. Compared with the words of a poem, they are the muted messengers of the viewer of poem. William Wordswoths I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud versus The Solitary ReI Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and The Solitary Reaper are both written by William Wordsworth and enjoy great popularity among the readers. When reading the two poems, the readers c an feel that the tones of them are different. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud affects the readers with the happiness of the daffodils, while The Solitary Reaper transfers a sense of sadness. Apart from the language of the poems and the figures of speech used, the use of sound and stanza also contributes a lot to the creation of different tones.Firstly, the length of each stanza of the two poems has much to do with the creation of the tone. Shorter stanzas are easier to read compared with longer ones. And it is a suitable form to carry such tones as happy, light, and peaceful and so on. On the contrary, longer stanzas always appear denser, and the feelings conveyed are often heavy and sad. Thus, longer stanzas are fit for the expression of sad feelings. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and The Solitary Reaper are two typical examples of this. The former has six lines in each stanza while the latter has eight. When the readers read the two poems, it is easy for them to grasp the happiness of the daffodils as well as the sadness that is conveyed by the ?solitary reaper?. The readers can always quickly finish reading each stanza of I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, the same way that the daffodils are ?fluttering and dancing in the breeze? sprightly. Similarly, when reading The Solitary Reaper, the readers cannot help but feel that the many lines of the poem are just like the much sadness that seems to last on and on. And it is difficult for the readers to get out of the sad feeling that the poet has set in the poem. The lengths of the stanzas alone are of great help i... ... varies more. This also contributes to the overall tone of the poem. When reading I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, the readers can easily grasp a sense of happiness, because the sentences, which are neatly written, are more music like and are pleasant to read. However, when reading The Solitary Reaper, with the varying of the lengths of the lines, the readers? feeling cannot help being ?varied? and become q uite complicated. The length of each line also helps create the tone of the poems. To sum up, the tone of a poem is not simply connected with the meaning of each line, in other words, even though the readers don?t quite get the meaning of one poem, they can still know the tone of it. Because the basic elements, such as sound and stanza also play very important roles in the poem. Compared with the words of a poem, they are the muted messengers of the beauty of poem.